/* DATA DESCRIPTION: Citation: Paine, Alice R; Baldini, James; Rex, Charlie L; Sigl, Michael; Pausata, Francesco S R; Brown, Richard J (2026): IntCal20 age calibrations for the largest (M ≥5.9) known explosive eruptions between 90°N and 20°S, since 11.7 ka [dataset]. PANGAEA, https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.995594 (DOI registration in progress) Abstract: Uncalibrated (14C), calibrated (IntCal20), and corresponding ice core-derived ages for the 51 largest known Holocene eruptions between 90 degrees north, and 20 degrees south. IntCal20 ages listed are those presented in Paine et al. Evidence for volcanic forcing of Holocene cold events - where individual 14C ages were recalibrated using the IntCal20 curve, and modelled within the OxCal online version 4.4 model (https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html). All ages are given in years before present, where "present" corresponds to 1950 CE. Inclusion of an event in this list followed a two-stage compilation process; as part of the aforementioned study. The first stage involved extraction of eruption data from the Large Magnitude Explosive Eruption database (LaMEVE). Eruptions were immediately removed if they did not correspond to our pre-defined criteria for location (90 deg. N to 20 deg. S) and age (~11700–600 yr BP). A conservative magnitude filter of M≥5.9 was initially applied to our search, where M is quantified to one decimal point. Thus, eruptions listed as M=5.9 includes all eruptions with M values between 5.9 and 6.0. Eruptions with magnitudes listed as 5.9 were independently assessed in order to verify volumetric estimations, and their associated magnitude calculations. The second stage of data compilation involved a thorough intra-study comparison, where volumetric and chronological data was cross-checked with all literature currently available for each eruption individually: to determine the consistency in values. Where possible, magnitude estimates were also cross-checked across different modes of data acquisition (e.g., geological, geophysical, and model-based), to ensure that the values provided in the literature were consistent across different methods of estimation. From the 51 eruptions that remained in our compilation following stages (1) and (2), ages for 45 are derived from 14C (radiocarbon) dating. Keyword(s): chronology; eruption; explosive; Holocene; OxCal; Radiocarbon; radiocarbon dates; volcanic activity; volcanic eruption Related to: Paine, Alice R; Baldini, J U L; Rex, Charlie L; Sigl, Michael; Pausata, Francesco S R; Brown, Richard J (2026): Evidence for volcanic forcing of Holocene cold events. Nature Communications, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-73492-4 Coverage: MEDIAN LATITUDE: 34.959608 * MEDIAN LONGITUDE: 165.985490 * SOUTH-BOUND LATITUDE: -16.250000 * WEST-BOUND LONGITUDE: 14.430000 * NORTH-BOUND LATITUDE: 64.420000 * EAST-BOUND LONGITUDE: -17.330000 Event(s): Aira_volcano * LATITUDE: 31.590000 * LONGITUDE: 130.660000 Ambrym_volcano * LATITUDE: -16.250000 * LONGITUDE: 168.120000 Aniakchak_volcano * LATITUDE: 56.880000 * LONGITUDE: -158.170000 Avachinsky_volcano * LATITUDE: 53.260000 * LONGITUDE: 158.830000 Black_Peak_volcano * LATITUDE: 56.550000 * LONGITUDE: -158.780000 Ceboruco_volcano * LATITUDE: 21.130000 * LONGITUDE: -104.510000 Changbaishan_volcano * LATITUDE: 41.980000 * LONGITUDE: 128.080000 Churchill_volcano * LATITUDE: 61.380000 * LONGITUDE: -141.750000 Dakataua_volcano * LATITUDE: -5.060000 * LONGITUDE: 150.110000 Fisher_volcano * LATITUDE: 54.650000 * LONGITUDE: -164.430000 Grimsvötn_volcano (Grímsvötn) * LATITUDE: 64.420000 * LONGITUDE: -17.330000 Illopango_volcano * LATITUDE: 13.670000 * LONGITUDE: -89.050000 Kaguyak_volcano * LATITUDE: 58.610000 * LONGITUDE: -154.030000 Karkar_volcano * LATITUDE: -4.650000 * LONGITUDE: 145.960000 Karymsky_volcano * LATITUDE: 54.050000 * LONGITUDE: 159.450000 Katla_volcano * LATITUDE: 63.633000 * LONGITUDE: -19.050000 * LOCATION: Iceland (URI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland) * METHOD/DEVICE: Multiple investigations (MULT) Khangar_volcano * LATITUDE: 54.750000 * LONGITUDE: 157.380000 Kikai_volcano * LATITUDE: 30.790000 * LONGITUDE: 130.310000 Krakatau_volcano * LATITUDE: -6.100000 * LONGITUDE: 105.420000 Ksudach_volcano * LATITUDE: 51.800000 * LONGITUDE: 157.530000 Kurile_Lake * LATITUDE: 51.450000 * LONGITUDE: 157.120000 Long_Island_volcano * LATITUDE: -5.360000 * LONGITUDE: 147.120000 Lvinaya_Past_volcano * LATITUDE: 44.610000 * LONGITUDE: 146.990000 Makushin_volcano * LATITUDE: 53.890000 * LONGITUDE: -166.920000 Mashu_volcano * LATITUDE: 43.570000 * LONGITUDE: 144.570000 Mazama_volcano * LATITUDE: 42.930000 * LONGITUDE: -122.120000 Mount_St_Helens * LATITUDE: 46.199440 * LONGITUDE: -122.191110 * LOCATION: Mount St. Helens, USA Okmok * LATITUDE: 53.432000 * LONGITUDE: -168.130000 * METHOD/DEVICE: Multiple investigations (MULT) Opala_volcano * LATITUDE: 52.540000 * LONGITUDE: 157.340000 Oshima-Oshima_volcano * LATITUDE: 41.510000 * LONGITUDE: 139.370000 Pago_volcano * LATITUDE: -5.580000 * LONGITUDE: 150.520000 Pinatubo_volcano * LATITUDE: 15.130000 * LONGITUDE: 120.350000 Rabaul_volcano * LATITUDE: -4.270000 * LONGITUDE: 152.200000 Rinjani_volcano * LATITUDE: -8.420000 * LONGITUDE: 116.470000 Santorini_volcano * LATITUDE: 36.400000 * LONGITUDE: 25.400000 Semisopochnoi_volcano * LATITUDE: 51.930000 * LONGITUDE: 179.580000 Taal_volcano * LATITUDE: 14.000000 * LONGITUDE: 120.990000 Tao-Rusyr_volcano * LATITUDE: 49.350000 * LONGITUDE: 154.700000 Ulleungdo_volcano * LATITUDE: 37.500000 * LONGITUDE: 130.870000 Veniaminof_volcano * LATITUDE: 56.170000 * LONGITUDE: -159.380000 Vesuvius_volcano * LATITUDE: 40.820000 * LONGITUDE: 14.430000 Parameter(s): Event label (Event) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Source volcano (Source volcano) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Location (Location) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) LATITUDE (Latitude) * GEOCODE * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) LONGITUDE (Longitude) * GEOCODE * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Unit (Unit) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Age, dated [ka BP] (Age dated) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * METHOD/DEVICE: Age, uncalibrated * COMMENT: Uncalibrated Age (ka BP) Age, dated, error [±] (Age dated e) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * METHOD/DEVICE: Age, uncalibrated * COMMENT: Uncalibrated Age Error (kyr) Reference/source (Reference) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * COMMENT: Uncalibrated Age Reference(s) Uniform resource locator/link to source data file (URL source) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Age, dated [ka BP] (Age dated) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * METHOD/DEVICE: Age, IntCal20 * COMMENT: IntCal20 Age (ka BP); Median Age, dated, error [±] (Age dated e) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * METHOD/DEVICE: Age, IntCal20 * COMMENT: IntCal20 Age Error (kyr), Median Ice age [ka BP] (Ice age) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * COMMENT: Ice Core Age (ka BP) Ice age, error [±] (Ice age e) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * COMMENT: Ice Core Age Error (kyr) Reference/source (Reference) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * COMMENT: Ice Core Age Reference(s) Uniform resource locator/link to source data file (URL source) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Uniform resource locator/link to source data file (URL source) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) Age, dated [ka BP] (Age dated) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * METHOD/DEVICE: see comment * COMMENT: Final Eruption Age (ka BP) Age, dated, error [±] (Age dated e) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * COMMENT: Final Eruption Age Error (kyr) Method comment (Method comm) * PI: Paine, Alice R (https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4404-3021, alice.paine@unibas.ch) * COMMENT: Determined by… License: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC-BY-4.0) (URI: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) Status: Curation Level: Enhanced curation (URI: https://wiki.pangaea.de/wiki/Curation_levels) Size: 610 data points */ Event Source volcano Location Latitude Longitude Unit Age dated [ka BP] (Uncalibrated Age (ka BP), Age...) Age dated e [±] (Uncalibrated Age Error (kyr),...) Reference (Uncalibrated Age Reference(s)) URL source Age dated [ka BP] (IntCal20 Age (ka BP); Median,...) Age dated e [±] (IntCal20 Age Error (kyr), Med...) Ice age [ka BP] (Ice Core Age (ka BP)) Ice age e [±] (Ice Core Age Error (kyr)) Reference (Ice Core Age Reference(s)) URL source URL source Age dated [ka BP] (Final Eruption Age (ka BP), s...) Age dated e [±] (Final Eruption Age Error (kyr)) Method comm (Determined by…) Dakataua_volcano Dakataua New Britain -5.06 150.11 Dk 1.37000 0.037 McKee, C., et al. A remarkable pulse of large-scale volcanism on New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea. Bull Volcanol 73, 27–37 (2011). doi:10.1007/s00445-010-0401-8 1.35 0.05 1.349 0.0505 IntCal20 Kurile_Lake Kurile Lake Kamchatka Peninsula 51.45 157.12 CF 7.61800 0.014 Ponomareva, V. V. et al. The 7600 (14C) year BP Kurile Lake caldera-forming eruption, Kamchatka, Russia: stratigraphy and field relationships. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 136, 199–222 (2004) doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.05.013 8.40 0.02 1.010 0.0010 Ice Core Okmok Okmok Aleutian Islands 53.43 -168.13 Okmok I 8.26000 0.090 Miller, T. P. & Smith, R. L. Late Quaternary caldera-forming eruptions in the eastern Aleutian arc, Alaska. Geology 15, 434–438 (1987) 9.24 0.22 3.520 0.0530 IntCal20 Long_Island_volcano Long Island New Guinea -5.36 147.12 Biliau Beds 3.99000 0.110 Pain, C. F., et al. Pyroclastic deposits and eruptive sequences of Long Island. Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea Memoir 101–113 (1981) doi:10.1177/0959683617735589 4.73 0.26 7.140 0.2880 IntCal20 Pinatubo_volcano Pinatubo The Phillippines 15.13 120.35 Tayawan/Pasbul 8.38000 0.080 Newhall, C.G., et al. Eruptive History of Mount Pinatubo. Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon City, 1996) doi:10.1785/gssrl.69.2.123 9.37 0.17 8.400 0.0215 IntCal20 Churchill_volcano Churchill Alaska 61.38 -141.75 White River Ash (east) 1.09700 0.063 Jensen, B. J. L. et al. A latest Pleistocene and Holocene composite tephrostratigraphic framework for northeastern North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 272, 107242 (2021); Jensen, B. J. L. et al. Transatlantic distribution of the Alaskan White River Ash. Geology 42, 875–878 (2014) doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107242 1.04 0.14 7.760 0.1040 IntCal20 Krakatau_volcano Krakatau Indonesia -6.10 105.42 416 AD 1.60900 0.000 Historical Records 1.610 Historical Changbaishan_volcano Changbaishan China/North Korea 41.98 128.08 Millennium/B-Tm 1.005 0.0000 Oppenheimer, C. et al. Multiproxy dating the ‘Millennium Eruption’ of Changbaishan to late 946 CE. Quaternary Science Reviews 158, 164–171 (2017) doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.12.024 0.690 0.0010 Ice Core Karymsky_volcano Karymsky Kamchatka 54.05 159.45 KRM 7.89200 0.041 Braitseva, O. A., et al. Ages of calderas, large explosive craters and active volcanoes in the Kuril-Kamchatka region, Russia. Bulletin of Volcanology 57, 383–402 (1995) doi:10.1007/BF00300984 8.70 0.11 8.310 0.1395 IntCal20 Katla_volcano Katla Iceland 63.63 -19.05 Eldgjá 1.011 0.0010 Oppenheimer, C. et al. The Eldgjá eruption: timing, longrange impacts and influence on the Christianisation of Iceland. Climatic Change 147, 369–381 (2018); Hutchison, W. et al. High?Resolution Ice?Core Analyses Identify the Eldgjá Eruption and a Cluster of Icelandic and Trans?Continental Tephras Between 936 and 943 CE. JGR Atmospheres 129, e2023JD040142 (2024) doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2171-9 10.630 0.1450 IntCal20 Mount_St_Helens St. Helens USA 46.20 -122.18 Yn (Smith Creek) 3.49850 0.040 Jensen, B. J. L., et al. A re-examination of the three most prominent Holocene tephra deposits in western Canada: Bridge River, Mount St. Helens Yn and Mazama. Quaternary International 500, 83–95 (2019) doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.03.017 3.78 0.10 doi:10.1029/2023JD040142 9.240 0.2170 IntCal20 Veniaminof_volcano Veniaminof Alaska 56.17 -159.38 CF 3.64600 0.055 Miller, T. P. & Smith, R. L. Late Quaternary caldera-forming eruptions in the eastern Aleutian arc, Alaska. Geology 15, 434–438 (1987) 3.97 0.13 3.580 0.0040 Ice Core Ambrym_volcano Ambrym Vanatu -16.25 168.12 ~2ka 1.90000 0.106 McCall, G. J. H., et al. The geology and geophysics of the ambrym caldera, New Hebrides. Bull Volcanol 34, 681–696 (1970) doi:10.1007/BF02596698 2.07 0.26 2.070 0.2600 IntCal20 Ksudach_volcano Ksudach Kamchatka 51.80 157.53 KS1 1.85000 0.240 Jensen, B. J. L. et al. A latest Pleistocene and Holocene composite tephrostratigraphic framework for northeastern North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 272, 107242 (2021); Ponomareva, V. et al. A full holocene tephrochronology for the Kamchatsky Peninsula region: Applications from Kamchatka to North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 168, 101–122 (2017) doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107242 7.98 0.36 7.610 0.1785 IntCal20 Aniakchak_volcano Aniakchak Alaska 56.88 -158.17 Aniakchak II 3.578 0.0040 Pearson, C. et al. Geochemical icecore constraints on the timing and climatic impact of Aniakchak II (1628 BCE) and Thera (Minoan) volcanic eruptions. PNAS Nexus 1, pgac048 (2022) doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac048 1.540 0.1980 IntCal20 Churchill_volcano Churchill Alaska 61.38 -141.75 (WRAn) 1.82200 0.130 Reuther, J., et al. Revisiting the Timing of the Northern Lobe of the White River Ash Volcanic Event in Eastern Alaska and Western Yukon. Radiocarbon 62, 169–188 (2020) doi:10.1017/RDC.2019.110 1.71 0.30 2.020 0.0915 IntCal20 Fisher_volcano Fisher Aleutian Islands 54.65 -164.43 CF 9.37200 0.198 Stelling, P., et al. Eruptive history of Fisher Caldera, Alaska, USA. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 139, 163–183 (2005) doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.08.006 10.70 0.49 3.970 0.1310 IntCal20 Ksudach_volcano Ksudach Kamchatka Peninsula 51.80 157.53 KS2 7.13300 0.195 Jensen, B. J. L. et al. A latest Pleistocene and Holocene composite tephrostratigraphic framework for northeastern North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 272, 107242 (2021); Ponomareva, V. et al. A full holocene tephrochronology for the Kamchatsky Peninsula region: Applications from Kamchatka to North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 168, 101–122 (2017) doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107242 1.82 0.52 7.089 0.0260 Davies, S. M. et al. Exploiting the Greenland volcanic ash repository to date calderaforming eruptions and widespread isochrons during the Holocene. Quaternary Science Reviews 334, 108707 (2024) doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108707 10.000 0.0880 IntCal20 Rinjani_volcano Rinjani Indonesia -8.42 116.47 Samalas 0.693 Vidal, C. M. et al. Dynamics of the major plinian eruption of Samalas in 1257 A.D. (Lombok, Indonesia). Bull Volcanol 77, 73 (2015) 1.040 0.1355 IntCal20 Vesuvius_volcano Vesuvius Italy 40.82 14.43 Avellino 3.47900 0.029 Sevink, J., et al. Radiocarbon dating distal tephra from the Early Bronze Age Avellino eruption (EU-5) in the coastal basins of southern Lazio (Italy): Uncertainties, results, and implications for dating distal tephra. Quaternary Geochronology 63, 101154 (2021) doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2021.101154 3.76 0.07 10.700 0.4925 IntCal20 Makushin_volcano Makushin Alaska 53.89 -166.92 6000 BC 8.05000 0.050 Global Volcanism Program (GVP) [https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=311310] 8.88 0.16 10.180 0.0600 Ice Core Grimsvötn_volcano Grímsvötn Iceland 64.42 -17.33 Saksunarvatn 10.10550 0.315 Oladóttir, B.A., et al. (2020) The Saksunarvatn Ash and the G10ka series tephra. Review and current state of knowledge. Quaternary Geochronology 56: 101041 doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2019.101041 11.89 0.82 10.180 0.0200 Sigl, M., et al. Volcanic stratospheric sulfur injections and aerosol optical depth during the Holocene (past 11 500 years) from a bipolar icecore array. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 14, 3167–3196 (2022) doi:10.5194/essd-14-3167-2022 3.980 0.4100 IntCal20 Opala_volcano Opala Kamchatka 52.54 157.34 OP (Baranii Amphitheatre crater) 1.48000 0.050 Braitseva, O. A., et al. Ages of calderas, large explosive craters and active volcanoes in the Kuril-Kamchatka region, Russia. Bulletin of Volcanology 57, 383–402 (1995) doi:10.1007/BF00300984 1.36 0.06 10.690 0.1090 IntCal20 Pago_volcano Pago New Britain -5.58 150.52 WK-2 3.30000 0.160 Machida, H. et al. Holocene explosive eruptions of Witori and Dakataua caldera volcanoes in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Quaternary International 34–36, 65–78 (1996) doi:10.1016/1040-6182(95)00070-4 3.98 0.41 3.980 0.4100 IntCal20 Taal_volcano Taal The Phillippines 14.00 120.99 Taal scoria / Caldera collapse 6.11000 0.800 Reyes et al. (2017); Martinez & Williams (1999) 7.06 1.75 3.760 0.0740 IntCal20 Pago_volcano Pago New Britain -5.58 150.52 WG 1.24000 0.080 Machida, H. et al. Holocene explosive eruptions of Witori and Dakataua caldera volcanoes in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Quaternary International 34–36, 65–78 (1996) doi:10.1016/1040-6182(95)00070-4 1.30 0.12 1.300 0.1240 IntCal20 Tao-Rusyr_volcano Tao-Rusyr Kuril Islands 49.35 154.70 CF 7.50000 0.080 Braitseva, O. A., et al. Ages of calderas, large explosive craters and active volcanoes in the Kuril-Kamchatka region, Russia. Bulletin of Volcanology 57, 383–402 (1995) doi:10.1007/BF00300984 8.31 0.14 1.300 0.1240 IntCal20 Avachinsky_volcano Avachinsky Kamchatka 53.26 158.83 IAv2 7.15100 0.051 Braitseva, O., et al. Holocene Key-Marker Tephra Layers in Kamchatka, Russia. Quaternary Research 47, 125–139 (1997) doi:10.1006/qres.1996.1876 7.98 0.06 9.370 0.1670 IntCal20 Khangar_volcano Khangar Kamchatka 54.75 157.38 KHG 6.91450 0.030 Braitseva, O.A. et al. (1996) The caldera-forming eruption of Ksudach volcano about cal. A.D. 240: The greatest explosive event of our era in Kamchatka, Russia. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 70(1/2): 49-65 doi:10.1016/0377-0273(95)00047-X 7.74 0.06 7.980 0.3640 IntCal20 Mashu_volcano Mashu Japan 43.57 144.57 Ma-f/g/h/i/j 6.73000 0.060 Kishimoto, H. Tephrostratigraphy and eruption style of Mashu volcano, during the last 14,000 years, eastern Hokkaido, Japan. Bulletin of the Volcanological Society of Japan 54, 15–36 (2009) DOI:10.18940/kazan.54.1_15 7.58 0.10 7.580 0.0990 IntCal20 Vesuvius_volcano Vesuvius Italy 40.82 14.43 Mercato Pumice / Ottaviano 8.09800 0.071 Santacroce, R. et al. Age and whole rock-glass compositions of proximal pyroclastics from the major explosive eruptions of Somma-Vesuvius: A review as a tool for distal tephrostratigraphy. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 1–18 (2008); Wulf, S., et al. Tephrochronology of the 100ka lacustrine sediment record of Lago Grande di Monticchio (southern Italy). Quaternary International 122, 7–30 (2004) doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.06.009 9.02 0.26 4.730 0.2580 IntCal20 Aniakchak_volcano Aniakchak Alaska 56.88 -158.17 Aniakchak I 9.47000 0.040 VanderHoek, R. & Myron, R. An Archaeological Overview and Assessment of Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve. (2004) 10.69 0.11 5.830 0.1700 IntCal20 Okmok Okmok Aleutian Islands 53.43 -168.13 Okmok II 2.05000 0.030 Larsen, J. F., et al. Geologic Map of Okmok Volcano. https://doi.org/10.14509/31015 (2023) doi:10.14509/31015 2.02 0.09 1.993 0.0020 McConnell, J. R. et al. Extreme climate after massive eruption of Alaska’s Okmok volcano in 43 BCE and effects on the late Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117, 15443–15449 (2020) doi:10.1073/pnas.2002722117 1.710 0.2985 IntCal20 Pinatubo_volcano Pinatubo The Phillippines 15.13 120.35 Crow Valley 4.86500 0.485 Newhall, C.G., et al. Eruptive History of Mount Pinatubo. Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon City, 1996) doi:10.1785/gssrl.69.2.123 5.60 1.19 7.740 0.0600 IntCal20 Pinatubo_volcano Pinatubo The Phillippines 15.13 120.35 Maraunot 2.92500 0.070 Newhall, C.G., et al. Eruptive History of Mount Pinatubo. Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Quezon City, 1996) doi:10.1785/gssrl.69.2.123 3.06 0.19 8.700 0.1090 IntCal20 Black_Peak_volcano Black Peak Alaska 56.55 -158.78 CF 4.44700 0.040 Miller, T. P. & Smith, R. L. Late Quaternary caldera-forming eruptions in the eastern Aleutian arc, Alaska. Geology 15, 434–438 (1987) 5.05 0.09 5.600 1.1900 IntCal20 Ceboruco_volcano Ceboruco Mexico 21.13 -104.51 Jala Pumice 1.05500 0.085 Sieron, K. & Siebe, C. Revised stratigraphy and eruption rates of Ceboruco stratovolcano and surrounding monogenetic vents (Nayarit, Mexico) from historical documents and new radiocarbon dates. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 176, 241–264 (2008); Jensen, B. J. L. et al. A latest Pleistocene and Holocene composite tephrostratigraphic framework for northeastern North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 272, 107242 (2021). doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.04.006 0.98 0.20 1.009 0.0010 Hutchison, W. et al. High?Resolution Ice?Core Analyses Identify the Eldgjá Eruption and a Cluster of Icelandic and Trans?Continental Tephras Between 936 and 943 CE. JGR Atmospheres 129, e2023JD040142 (2024) doi:10.1029/2023JD040142 9.670 2.5060 IntCal20 Illopango_volcano Illopango El Salvador 13.67 -89.05 Tierra Blanca Joven 1.65000 0.102 Smith, V. C. et al. The magnitude and impact of the 431 CE Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango, El Salvador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 202003008 (2020) doi:10.1073/pnas.2003008117 1.54 0.20 1.519 0.0020 Smith, V. C. et al. The magnitude and impact of the 431 CE Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango, El Salvador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 202003008 (2020) doi:10.1073/pnas.2003008117 3.060 0.1880 IntCal20 Fisher_volcano Fisher Alaska 54.65 -164.43 Turquoise Cone 5.12000 0.070 Stelling, P., et al. Eruptive history of Fisher Caldera, Alaska, USA. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 139, 163–183 (2005) doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.08.006 5.83 0.17 7.980 0.0630 IntCal20 Karkar_volcano Karkar New Guinea -4.65 145.96 Wadau deposit 9.09000 0.250 Pain, C. F. & McKee, C. O. Late Quaternary eruptive history of Karkar Island. Geological Survey of Papua New Guinea Memoir 10, 39–47 (1981) 10.81 0.63 10.810 0.6330 IntCal20 Pago_volcano Pago New Britain -5.58 150.52 Witori-Kimbe WK-1 5.63000 0.110 Machida, H. et al. Holocene explosive eruptions of Witori and Dakataua caldera volcanoes in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Quaternary International 34–36, 65–78 (1996) doi:10.1016/1040-6182(95)00070-4 6.67 0.20 6.670 0.2025 IntCal20 Santorini_volcano Santorini Greece 36.40 25.40 Minoan 3.31000 0.023 Pearson, C., et al. Olive shrub buried on Therasia supports a mid-16th century BCE date for the Thera eruption. Sci Rep 13, 6994 (2023). doi:10.1038/s41598-023-33696-w 3.52 0.05 0.710 0.0870 IntCal20 Ulleungdo_volcano Ulleungdo South Korea 37.50 130.87 U4 8.94900 0.042 Staff, R. A. et al. New14 C Determinations from Lake Suigetsu, Japan: 12,000 to 0 Cal BP. Radiocarbon 53, 511–528 (2011) doi:10.1017/S0033822200034627 10.00 0.09 3.780 0.0985 IntCal20 Aira_volcano Aira Japan 31.59 130.66 Wakamiko/Shinjima/Moeshima 8.05000 1.000 Global Volcanism Programme (GVP) [https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=282080] 9.67 2.51 8.880 0.1560 IntCal20 Kikai_volcano Kikai Japan 30.79 130.31 Akahoya/ K-Ah 6.28000 0.130 Smith et al. (2013), Staff et al. (2011) 7.14 0.29 0.980 0.1985 IntCal20 Mazama_volcano Mazama Oregon, USA 42.93 -122.12 Crater Lake 6.75375 0.100 Egan, J., et al. A high-precision age estimate of the Holocene Plinian eruption of Mount Mazama, Oregon, USA. The Holocene 25, 1054–1067 (2015) doi:10.1177/0959683615576230 7.61 0.18 7.562 0.0035 Jensen, B. J. L. et al. A latest Pleistocene and Holocene composite tephrostratigraphic framework for northeastern North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 272, 107242 (2021) doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.107242 1.820 0.5225 IntCal20 Lvinaya_Past_volcano Lvinaya Past Kuril Islands 44.61 146.99 CF 9.40000 0.060 Razzhigaeva, N. G., et al. Age, source, and distribution of Holocene tephra in the southern Kurile Islands: Evaluation of Holocene eruptive activities in the southern Kurile arc. Quaternary International 397, 63–78 (2016) doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.07.070 10.63 0.15 1.360 0.0635 IntCal20 Oshima-Oshima_volcano Oshima-Oshima Japan 41.51 139.37 Nishi-yama ejecta 0.76000 0.070 Katsui, Y. & Yamamoto, M. The 1741–1742 activity of Oshima-oshima volcano, north Japan. Journal of the Faculty of Science at Hokkaido University 19, 527–536 (1981) 0.71 0.09 9.020 0.2565 IntCal20 Semisopochnoi_volcano Semisopochnoi Alaska 51.93 179.58 Caldera formation 6.92000 0.060 Coombs, M. L., et al. Postglacial Eruptive History and Geochemistry of Semisopochnoi Volcano, Western Aleutian Islands, Alaska. 33 https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20175150 (2018) doi:10.3133/sir20175150 7.76 0.10 1.010 0.0010 Ice Core Kaguyak_volcano Kaguyak Alaska 58.61 -154.03 Caldera eruption 5.80000 0.200 Fierstein, J. Explosive eruptive record in the Katmai region, Alaska Peninsula: an overview. Bull Volcanol 69, 469–509 (2007) doi:10.1007/s00445-006-0097-y 6.72 0.44 6.720 0.4420 IntCal20 Rabaul_volcano Rabaul New Britain -4.27 152.20 Rabaul Pyroclastics 1.38000 0.034 McKee, C.O., et al. A revised age of AD 667-699 for the latest major eruption at Rabaul. Bulletin of Volcanology 77, 65 (2015) doi:10.1007/s00445-015-0954-7 1.35 0.04