Abstract
Dinoflagellates of the genus Karlodinium are ichthyotoxic species that produce toxins including karlotoxins and karmitoxins. Karlotoxins show hemolytic and cytotoxic activities and have been associated with fish mortality. This study evaluated the effect of toxins released into the environment of Karlodinium veneficum strain K10 (Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean) on the early stages of Danio rerio (zebrafish). Extracts of the supernatant of K10 contained the mono-sulfated KmTx-10, KmTx-11, KmTx-12, KmTx-13, and a di-sulfated form of KmTx-10. Total egg mortality was observed for karlotoxin concentration higher than 2.69 μg L−1. For 1.35 μg L−1, 87% of development anomalies were evidenced (all concentrations were expressed as KmTx-2 equivalent). Larvae of 8 days postfertilization exposed to 1.35 µg L−1 presented epithelial damage with 80% of cells in the early apoptotic stage. Our results indicate that supernatants with low concentration of KmTxs produce both lethal and sublethal effects in early fish stages. Moreover, apoptosis was induced at concentrations as low as 0.01 μg L−1. This is of great relevance since detrimental long-term effects due to exposure to low concentrations of these substances could affect wild and cultured fish.
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Funding
This research was supported by the Regional Government of Biobío (Chile) (FIC-R 40000139 “Generación de Capacidades Regionales de Detección de Toxinas Marinas para Fortalecer la Seguridad Alimentaria en las Pequeñas y Medianas Empresas Productoras de Moluscos de la región del Biobío”). Toxin extracts were obtained during the projects funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (grants SAF2011-28883-C03-02 and CTQ2014-55888-C3-02).
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All authors contributed to the study conception and design, commented on versions of the manuscript, and read and approved the final manuscript. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Katia Álvarez-Muñoz, Lorenzo López-Rosales, and Juan José Gallardo-Rodríguez. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Alejandra Llanos-Rivera, Juan José Gallardo-Rodríguez, Allisson Astuya-Villalón, Bernd Krock, and Katia Álvarez-Muñoz; Francisco García-Camacho and Asterio Sánchez-Mirón revised and edited the final draft.
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Rearing, handling, and experimental work with zebrafish embryos and larvae were carried out under protocols approved by the University of Concepcion's Bioethics Committee and following internationally established procedures.
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Llanos-Rivera, A., Álvarez-Muñoz, K., Astuya-Villalón, A. et al. Sublethal effect of the toxic dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum on early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 27113–27124 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24149-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24149-4