The Plio-Pleistocene glaciation of the Barents Sea–Svalbard region: a new model based on revised chronostratigraphy

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Abstract

Based on a revised chronostratigraphy, and compilation of borehole data from the Barents Sea continental margin, a coherent glaciation model is proposed for the Barents Sea ice sheet over the past 3.5 million years (Ma). Three phases of ice growth are suggested: (1) The initial build-up phase, covering mountainous regions and reaching the coastline/shelf edge in the northern Barents Sea during short-term glacial intensification, is concomitant with the onset of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciation (3.6–2.4 Ma). (2) A transitional growth phase (2.4–1.0 Ma), during which the ice sheet expanded towards the southern Barents Sea and reached the northwestern Kara Sea. This is inferred from step-wise decrease of Siberian river-supplied smectite-rich sediments, likely caused by ice sheet blockade and possibly reduced sea ice formation in the Kara Sea as well as glacigenic wedge growth along the northwestern Barents Sea margin hampering entrainment and transport of sea ice sediments to the Arctic–Atlantic gateway. (3) Finally, large-scale glaciation in the Barents Sea occurred after 1 Ma with repeated advances to the shelf edge. The timing is inferred from ice grounding on the Yermak Plateau at about 0.95 Ma, and higher frequencies of gravity-driven mass movements along the western Barents Sea margin associated with expansive glacial growth.

Introduction

The geomorphology and sediment records both offshore and onshore in the Barents Sea region (Fig. 1) provide an excellent means for understanding the dynamics of coastal glaciations, locations of fast-flowing ice streams, and sedimentation during the last glacial period (e.g. Andersen et al., 1996, Landvik et al., 1998, Vorren et al., 1998, Andreassen et al., 2004, Andreassen et al., 2007, Ottesen et al., 2005). To fully understand the erosion and depositional patterns in the area, however, it is of vital importance to obtain information regarding the timing and extent of previous glaciations and to develop coherent glaciation models for the Late Plio-Pleistocene (Sejrup et al., 2005 and references therein). So far, relatively little is known about glaciations older than the Saalian (before ∼0.14 Ma) (e.g. Winkler et al., 2002, Spielhagen et al., 2004, Svendsen et al., 2004, Larsen et al., 2006, Knies and Gaina, 2008). The first indications of large-scale glaciations in the northern Barents Sea are from about 2.7 Ma (e.g. Knies et al., 2002), while repeated ice advances to the shelf break may have occurred since ∼1.5 Ma along the western Barents Sea and Svalbard margins (Solheim et al., 1998, Butt et al., 2000, Sejrup et al., 2005 and references therein).

Current models for the Late Plio-Pleistocene glacial history of western Svalbard and the Barents Sea (Sejrup et al., 2005) indicate an initial growth phase between ∼2.3 and 1.6 Ma, during which glaciations were probably limited to Svalbard and the northern Barents Sea (Butt et al., 2000). In contrast, Solheim et al. (1998) inferred that the southwestern Barents Sea margin was most likely glacially influenced since ∼2.6 Ma. The seismic structure of the northwestern margin suggests at least sixteen glacial advances during the last ∼1 Ma (Solheim et al., 1996), while Sættem et al. (1992) and Laberg and Vorren (1996a) have found indications of eight major ice advances in the southwestern part over the past 0.44 Ma. More recently, Andreassen et al. (2004) have provided evidence of grounded ice reaching the western Barents Sea shelf edge at least eight times during the last ∼1.5 Ma. The timing is consistent with expansion of the Svalbard ice sheet deduced from a marked increase in ice-rafted debris (IRD) along its western margin (Butt et al., 2000).

The discrepancies in timing and the extent of glaciations in the Barents Sea region during the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene are closely attributed to age models deduced from available boreholes and exploration well data in the study area. While inferences from the north are deduced from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 911 (e.g. Knies et al., 2002, Geissler and Jokat, 2004), conclusions regarding the western Barents Sea rely on chronostratigraphic constraints from ODP Site 986 and exploration wells (e.g. Solheim et al., 1998, Forsberg et al., 1999, Butt et al., 2000, Eidvin et al., 2000). A seismic stratigraphic framework has been established both for the western and northern Barents Sea margins (e.g. Vorren et al., 1991, Faleide et al., 1996, Fiedler and Faleide, 1996, Hjelstuen et al., 1996, Laberg and Vorren, 1996a, Laberg and Vorren, 1996b; Ryseth et al., 2003, Geissler and Jokat, 2004). Three main sequences (GI–GIII) and seven regional seismic reflectors (R7–R1) were identified along the western margin (Fig. 2), of which the deepest, R7, was interpreted to mark the base of the glacial deposits (Faleide et al., 1996). The age assignment of ∼2.3 Ma for this lower reflector R7 was derived from the chronostratigraphic framework of IKU's shallow boreholes and exploration wells from the southwestern Barents Sea (e.g. Sættem et al., 1992, Sættem et al., 1994, Eidvin et al., 1993, Mørk and Duncan, 1993). R7 was later penetrated at ODP Site 986 (Fig. 1) and paleomagnetic and biostratigraphic data as well as strontium isotope analyses confirmed the Late Pliocene age (2.3–2.5 Ma) of the prominent reflector (e.g. Channell et al., 1999, Eidvin and Nagy, 1999; Smelror, 1999; Butt et al., 2000).

Along the northern margin, Geissler and Jokat (2004) identified a number of seismic units spanning the Cenozoic epoch and assigned the lower boundary of the upper seismic unit YP3 to be representative for the base of the glacial deposits (Fig. 2). The chronostratigraphic framework of ODP Site 911 (Myhre et al., 1995, Sato and Kameo, 1996) from the Yermak Plateau was used to date the lower boundary of YP3 at ∼2.7–2.8 Ma (Fig. 2). Although Geissler and Jokat (2004) have highlighted the possibility of a close correspondence of both seismic units GI–GIII (west) and YP3 (north), they suggested different glaciation histories along the western and northern margins mainly due to incoherent age models of calibration Sites 911 and 986.

In this study, we approach the problem by reviewing existing age models for the last ∼3.5 Ma from key boreholes in the vicinity of the NW Barents Sea region (Fig. 1). The age constraints for the boreholes as well as the seismic stratigraphic interpretation are addressed by adding new chronostratigraphic information including biostratigraphic, paleomagnetic, and stable isotope data. Our strategy is to look at the various clay mineral groups smectite, kaolinite, illite, and chlorite together with IRD records to describe the long-term evolution of the extent of the Barents Sea glaciations over the past 3.5 Ma. Our goal is to present a new and coherent glaciation model for the Barents Sea region during Late Plio-Pleistocene time.

Section snippets

Data and approach

Published and unpublished clay mineral and IRD data from several boreholes along the Barents Sea continental margin have been compiled in this study (Table 1). The applied methods have been described by Wolf-Welling et al., 1996, Vogt, 1997, Wahsner et al., 1999, Butt et al., 2000, Knies et al., 2000, Vogt et al., 2001, Winkler et al., 2002, and Knies and Vogt (2003) and are only briefly summarized. The samples for clay mineral studies of Sites 910 and 911 were similarly prepared and analyzed

Yermak Plateau (ODP Sites 910, 911)

A stable oxygen isotope stratigraphy based on the planktic foraminifera Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sin.) was established for Hole 910A (Flower, 1996, Flower, 1997, Knies et al., 2007b) (Fig. 3). The stable isotope record was calibrated to absolute ages by AMS 14C datings, published and new biostratigraphic datums and a new magnetostratigraphy (Table 2a). Several lines of evidence suggest that a hiatus is present from 790 to 950 ka (see Myhre et al., 1995) (Fig. 3). Paleomagnetic data show the

Conclusions and summary

Summarizing the views outlined above, we postulate a new, coherent glaciation model for the Plio-Pleistocene Barents (Kara) Sea ice sheet (including Svalbard). A prerequisite for this is agreement upon the chronostratigraphic framework of existing boreholes along the Barents Sea margin. The age models for the boreholes are carefully discussed and deviations from published models are clearly defined. Unless new boreholes in the framework of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) are

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Research Council of Norway Petromaks project Glacipet (NFR no. 169291/S30), StatoilHydro and the German Research Council DFG grants Fi 442/10-1,2;13-1). This research used samples and data provided by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). We greatly appreciate the constructive comments provided by Tom Bradwell and one anonymous reviewer.

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