Non-double-couple microearthquakes at Long Valley caldera, California, provide evidence for hydraulic fracturing
Introduction
The first convincing examples of ‘non-double-couple’ (non-DC) volcanic earthquakes, whose mechanisms are incompatible with simple shear faulting, were three moment magnitude (Mw) 5.5–6.2 earthquakes at Long Valley caldera, in eastern California, in 1978 and 1980. These were the Mw 5.5 Wheeler Crest earthquake of 4 October 1978 (Ekström and Dziewonski, 1983) and two of the four Mw ∼6 earthquakes of 25 and 27 May 1980 (Barker and Langston, 1983, Julian, 1983, Julian and Sipkin, 1985). Since that time, non-DC microearthquakes have been identified at many other volcanic areas (Miller et al., 1998a), but the physical processes that cause them remain imperfectly understood, and it is not clear even that non-DC events of widely differing magnitudes are genetically similar. Julian (1983) and Julian and Sipkin (1985) suggested that the large 1978 and 1980 Long Valley earthquakes involved tensile failure caused by fluid pressure, but the seismic data available for these events could not resolve the volume changes that would accompany tensile faulting, so alternative explanations such as simultaneous slip on differently oriented shear faults have remained tenable. Recently, Dreger et al. (2000) fitted complete waveforms recorded on regional ‘broadband’ seismometers for six earthquakes of Mw 4.6–4.9 in December 1997, and showed that four of them have mechanisms with significant volume increases, and therefore must involve processes other than shear faulting.
Because of instrumental limitations, it has remained uncertain whether any of the thousands of microearthquakes that have occurred at Long Valley caldera since 1978 have non-DC mechanisms similar to those of the larger earthquakes. The permanent seismometer network in the area consists primarily of vertical-component sensors and uses analog telemetry and recording techniques with low dynamic range, so the only data bearing on focal mechanisms that they provide are P-wave first-motion polarities, which contain little information and are of little use for determining full moment-tensor source mechanisms (Julian et al., 1998).
To resolve questions about the mechanisms of microearthquakes at the caldera, the U.S. Geological Survey and Duke University installed and operated a temporary network of 65 three-component digital seismometers in the area from mid-May to late September 1997. During this period, the caldera experienced a series of earthquake swarms, which intensified with time and were accompanied by accelerated ground deformation (Foulger et al., 1998). An unusually complete seismic data set was obtained for these swarms, covering earthquakes down to moment magnitudes less than 1.
In this paper, we describe results from analysis of this data set using methods based on arrival-time differences and amplitude ratios, which extract extra information from seismograms and are relatively insensitive to bias caused by wave-propagation anomalies. The derived focal mechanisms show that most of the earthquakes have volume increases, and therefore involve processes other than shear faulting. High-resolution relative earthquake locations further show that the failure geometry of some events is close to that expected for tensile faulting, but the mechanisms require an accompanying volume-compensating process, probably involving rapid fluid flow.
Section snippets
Long Valley caldera
The 17- by 30-km silicic Long Valley caldera is located at the northern end of Owens Valley, on the boundary between the Basin and Range province and the Sierra Nevada in eastern California (Fig. 1). The caldera floor lies roughly 2200 m above sea level, and contains a resurgent dome about 10 km in diameter, which rises about 300 m above the surrounding moat. The geology, geophysics and tectonic history of the area have been described in detail by many authors (e.g. Bailey et al., 1976, Hill et
Previous earthquake mechanism determinations for Long Valley caldera
The mechanisms derived for the three non-DC Mw 5.5–6.2 events of October 1978 and May 1980 were constrained to be deviatoric and are close to CLVDs with their largest principal moments extensional and oriented east-northeast. Julian (1983) and Julian and Sipkin (1985) suggested that they were caused by tensile failure associated with intrusion of fluids into NNW-striking vertical cracks and had intrusion volumes possibly as large as 0.07 km3. The active fluid was thought to be water or CO2,
1997 seismicity
We computed moment tensors for 26 earthquakes with NCSN duration magnitudes between 0.43 and 3.14 that occurred during the summer of 1997, in approximately the first half of the seismic episode described above. Earthquake swarm activity began just west of Casa Diablo Hot Springs on 7 July, about three weeks after inflation of the resurgent dome began to accelerate. During the summer the temporary network recorded more than 4000 locatable earthquakes, along with ∼18 deep long-period events per
Results
Table 1 gives hypocentral coordinates and magnitudes for the 26 earthquakes analyzed, and Table 2 gives the derived focal mechanisms, in the form of moment-tensor components, source-type parameters (see below), principal moments, and principal-axis orientations. The moment tensors are normalized arbitrarily, so only the relative values of the moment-tensor components and principal moments are significant. Fig. 5 shows the geographical distribution of the mechanisms and previously published
Comparison with previous results from Long Valley caldera
The earthquakes described here are the smallest at Long Valley caldera for which non-DC mechanisms have been reported, and the fact that they occur places constraints on the physical processes involved. The non-DC earthquakes of October 1978 and May 1980 had Mw ∼6 (Julian, 1983, Julian and Sipkin, 1985) and those of November 1997 Mw 4.6–4.9 (Dreger et al., 2000). These large earthquakes all had substantial CLVD components, and the opening of cracks with volumes of 6.4×104 to 7×104 m3,
Conclusions
- 1.
Most of the small (0.4<Mw<3.1) earthquakes that occurred in the summer and early fall of 1997 during a time of accelerating earthquake swarms and inflationary crustal deformation at Long Valley caldera have non-DC mechanisms with positive CLVD and isotropic (volume increase) components.
- 2.
The source types of most of these earthquakes are consistent with mixed shear and tensile faulting, but require an additional volume-compensating process, which might be provided by the flow of fluid into opening
Acknowledgements
The instruments used in the field program were provided by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC loan 540/0197) and the PASSCAL facility of the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) through the Stanford Instrument Center. Data collected during this experiment will be available through the IRIS Data Management Center. The facilities of the IRIS Consortium are supported by the National Science Foundation under Cooperative Agreement EAR-9023502. We thank the U.S. Forest
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