Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A lifetime at depth: vertical distribution of southern elephant seals in the water column

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Polar Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although numerous studies have addressed the migration and dive behaviour of southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina), questions remain about their habitat use in the marine environment. We report on the vertical use of the water column in the species and the potential lifetime implications for southern elephant seals from Marion Island. Long-term mark-resight data were used to complement vertical habitat use for 35 known individuals tagged with satellite-relay data loggers, resulting in cumulative depth use extrapolated for each individual over its estimated lifespan. Seals spent on average 77.59% of their lives diving at sea, 7.06% at the sea surface, and 15.35% hauled out on land. Some segregation was observed in maximum dive depths and depth use between male and female animals—males evidently being physiologically more capable of exploiting increased depths. Females and males spent 86.98 and 80.89% of their lives at sea, respectively. While at sea, all animals spent more time between 300 and 400 m depth, than any other depth category. Males and females spent comparable percentages of their lifetimes below 100 m depth (males: 65.54%; females: 68.92%), though males spent 8.98% of their lives at depths in excess of 700 m, compared to females’ 1.84% at such depths. Adult males often performed benthic dives in excess of 2,000 m, including the deepest known recorded dive of any air-breathing vertebrate (>2,133 m). Our results provide a close approximation of vertical habitat use by southern elephant seals, extrapolated over their lifespans, and we discuss some physiological and developmental implications of their variable depth use.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bailleul F, Charrassin J-B, Ezraty R, Girard-Ardhuin F, McMahon CR, Field IC, Guinet C (2007) Southern elephant seals from Kerguelen Islands confronted by Antarctic Sea ice. Changes in movements and in diving behaviour. Deep Sea Res II 54:343–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailleul F, Pinaud D, Hindell M, Charrassin J-B, Guinet C (2008) Assessment of scale-dependent foraging behaviour in southern elephant seals incorporating the vertical dimension: a development of the First Passage Time method. J Anim Ecol 77:948–957

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baird RW, Hanson MB, Dill LM (2005) Factors influencing the diving behaviour of fisheating killer whales: sex differences and diel and interannual variation in diving rates. Can J Zool 83:257–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bester MN (1988) Chemical restraint of Antarctic fur seals and southern elephant seals. S Afr J Wildl Res 18:57–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Biuw M, McConnell BJ, Bradshaw CJA, Burton HR, Fedak M (2003) Blubber and buoyancy: monitoring the body condition of free-ranging seals using simple dive characteristics. J Exp Biol 206:3405–3423

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biuw M, Boehme L, Guinet C, Hindell MA, Costa DP, Charrassin J-B, Roquet F, Bailleul F, Meredith M, Thorpe S, Tremblay Y, McDonald BI, Park Y-H, Rintoul SR, Bindoff N, Goebel ME, Crocker DE, Lovell P, Nicholson J, Monks F, Fedak M (2007) Variations in behavior and condition of a Southern Ocean top predator in relation to in situ oceanographic conditions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:13705–13710

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bornemann H, Kreyscher M, Ramdohr S, Martin T, Carlini AR, Sellmann L, Plötz J (2000) Southern elephant seal movements and Antarctic sea ice. Antarct Sci 12:3–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bostrom BL, Fahlman A, Jones DR (2008) Tracheal compression delays alveolar collapse during deep diving in marine mammals. Res Phys Neurobiol 161:298–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw CJA, Higgins J, Michael KJ, Wotherspoon SJ, Hindell MA (2004) At-sea distribution of female southern elephant seals relative to variation in ocean surface properties. ICES J Mar Sci 61:1014–1027

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campagna C, Le Boeuf BJ, Blackwell SB, Crocker DE, Quintana F (1995) Diving behaviour and foraging location of female southern elephant seals from Patagonia. J Zool (Lond) 236:55–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campagna C, Fedak M, McConnell BJ (1999) Post-breeding distribution and diving behavior of adult male southern elephant seals from Patagonia. J Mammal 80:1341–1352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campagna C, Piola AR, Rosa Marin M, Lewis M, Zajaczkovski U, Fernandez T (2007) Deep divers in shallow seas: southern elephant seals on the Patagonian shelf. Deep Sea Res I 54:1792–1814

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlini AR, Daneri GA, Marquez MEI, Bornemann H, Panarello HO, Casaux R, Ramdohr S, Plötz J (2005) Food consumption estimates of southern elephant seal females during their post-breeding aquatic phase at King George Island. Polar Res 28:769–775

    Google Scholar 

  • de Bruyn PJN (2009) Life history studies of the southern elephant seal population at Marion Island. Ph.D. thesis, University of Pretoria

  • de Bruyn PJN, Tosh CA, Oosthuizen WC, Phalanndwa MV, Bester MN (2008) Temporary marking of unweaned southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina L.) pups. S Afr J Wildl Res 38:133–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahlman A, Olszowka A, Bostrom B, Jones DR (2006) Deep diving mammals: dive behavior and circulatory adjustments contribute to bends avoidance. Res Phys Neurobiol 153:66–77

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falke KJ, Hill RD, Qvist J, Schneider RC, Guppy M, Liggins GC, Hochachka PW, Elliott RE, Zapol WM (1985) Seal lungs collapse during free diving: evidence from arterial nitrogen tensions. Science 229:556–558

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fedak M, Lovell P, Grant SM (2001) Two approaches to compressing and interpreting time-depth information and satellite-linked data recorders as collected by time-depth recorders. Mar Mamm Sci 17:94–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folkow LP, Ramirez J-M, Ludvigsen S, Ramirez N, Blix AS (2008) Remarkable neuronal hypoxia tolerance in the deep-diving adult hooded seal (Cystophora cristata). Neurosci Lett 446:147–150

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hindell MA (1991) Some life-history parameters of a declining population of southern elephant seals, Mirounga leonina. J Anim Ecol 60:119–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hindell MA, Slip DJ, Burton HR (1991) The diving behaviour of adult male and female southern elephant seals, Mirounga leonina (Pinnipedia: Phocidae). Aust J Zool 39:595–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hindell MA, Slip DJ, Burton HR, Bryden MM (1992) Physiological implications of continuous, prolonged, and deep dives of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). Can J Zool 70:370–379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonker FC, Bester MN (1994) The diving behaviour of adult southern elephant seal, Mirounga leonina, cows from Marion Island. S Afr J Antarct Res 24:75–93

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonker FC, Bester MN (1998) Seasonal movements and foraging areas of adult southern female elephant seals, Mirounga leonina, from Marion Island. Antarct Sci 10:21–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkman SP, Bester MN, Pistorius PA, Hofmeyr GJG, Owen R, Mecenero S (2001) Participation in the winter haulout by southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina). Antarct Sci 13:380–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman GL (2006) Mysteries of adaptation to hypoxia and pressure in marine mammals. The Kenneth S. Norris Lifetime Achievement Award Lecture, Presented on 12 December 2005, San Diego, California. Mar Mamm Sci 22:507–526

  • Kooyman GL, Ponganis PJ (1998) The physiological basis of diving to depth: birds and mammals. Annu Rev Physiol 60:19–32

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf BJ, Laws RM (1994) Elephant seals: population ecology, behavior, and physiology. University of California Press, Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf BJ, Crocker DE, Costa DP, Blackwell SB, Webb PM, Houser DS (2000) Foraging ecology of northern elephant seals. Ecol Monogr 70:353–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis R, O’Connell T, Lewis M, Campagna C, Hoelzel AR (2006) Sex-specific foraging strategies and resource partitioning in the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 273:2901–2907

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malherbe J (1998) The diving and ranging behaviour of southern elephant seal, Mirounga leonina, bulls. M.Sc. dissertation, University of Pretoria

  • McConnell BJ, Fedak M (1996) Movements of southern elephant seals. Can J Zool 74:1485–1496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McConnell BJ, Chambers C, Fedak MA (1992) Foraging ecology of southern elephant seals in relation to the bathymetry and productivity of the Southern Ocean. Antarct Sci 4:393–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon CR, Burton HR, Bester MN (2003) A demographic comparison of two southern elephant seal populations. J Anim Ecol 72:61–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meir JU, Champagne CD, Costa DP, Williams CL, Ponganis PJ (2009) Extreme hypoxemic tolerance and blood oxygen depletion in diving elephant seals. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 297:R927–R939

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitz SA, Reuss S, Folkow P, Blix AS, Ramirez J-M, Hankeln T, Burmester T (2009) When the brain goes diving: glial oxidative metabolism may confer hypoxia tolerance to the seal brain. Neuroscience 163:552–560

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore MJ, Early GA (2004) Cumulative sperm whale bone damage and the bends. Science 306:2215

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pistorius PA, Taylor FE, Louw C, Hanise B, Bester MN, De Wet C, du Plooy A, Green N, Klasen S, Podile S, Schoeman J (2002) Distribution, movement, and estimated population size of killer whales at Marion Island. S Afr J Wildl Res 32:86–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Polasek LK, Davis RW (2001) Heterogeneity of myoglobin distribution in the locomotory muscles of five cetacean species. J Exp Biol 204:209–215

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez J-M, Folkow LP, Blix AS (2007) Hypoxia tolerance in mammals and birds: from the wilderness to the clinic. Annu Rev Physiol 69:113–143

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ridgway SH, Johnston DG (1966) Blood oxygen and ecology of porpoises of three genera. Science 151:456–458

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild BM (2005) What causes lesions in sperm whale bones? Science 308:631–632

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rothschild BM, Storrs GW (2003) Decompression syndrome in plesiosaurs (Suaropterygia: Reptilia). J Vertebr Paleontol 23:324–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith WHF, Sandwell DT (1997) Global sea floor topography from satellite altimetry and ship depth soundings. Science 277:1956–1962

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton TT, Poteiro FM, Heino M, Byrkjedal I, Langhelle G, Anderson CIH, Horne J, Søiland H, Falkenhaug T, Godø OR, Bergstad OA (2008) Vertical structure, biomass and topographic association of deep-pelagic fishes in relation to a mid-ocean ridge system. Deep Sea Res II 55:161–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tosh CA, de Bruyn PJN, Bester MN (2008) Preliminary analysis of the social structure of killer whales, Orcinus orca, at subantarctic Marion Island. Mar Mamm Sci 24:929–940

    Google Scholar 

  • Tosh CA, Bornemann H, Ramdohr S, Schröder M, Martin T, Carlini A, Plötz J, Bester MN (2009) Adult male southern elephant seals from King George Island utilize the Weddell Sea. Antarct Sci 21:113–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeno RL, Crocker DE, Hassrick JL, Allen SG, Costa DP (2008) Development of foraging behavior in juvenile northern elephant seals. J Zool (Lond) 274:180–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Chris Oosthuizen, Mashudu Phalanndwa, Ryan Reisinger, Thomas Mufanadzo, Phathu Radzilani, Brent Stewart and Greg Hofmeyr for their important assistance in the field with deployments of satellite tags. We are also grateful to them and the remaining field assistants for their continued efforts with the mark-resighting of tagged seals. Martin Biuw provided valuable input on the handling and filtering of dive data from SRDLs and René Wolmarans assisted with dive analyses in the R environment. The Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (Germany), the Department of Science and Technology and the National Research Foundation (South Africa) and South African National Antarctic Programme are acknowledged for financial and logistical support. Louise Chilvers, Alejandro Carlini and three anonymous reviewers provided valuable criticism on previous versions of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa

    T. McIntyre, P. J. N. de Bruyn, M. N. Bester & C. A. Tosh

  2. Department of Oceanography, Marine Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa

    I. J. Ansorge

  3. Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, PO Box 120161, 27515, Bremerhaven, Germany

    H. Bornemann & J. Plötz

Authors
  1. T. McIntyre
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. P. J. N. de Bruyn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. I. J. Ansorge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. N. Bester
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. H. Bornemann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. J. Plötz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. C. A. Tosh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to T. McIntyre.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 2119 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McIntyre, T., de Bruyn, P.J.N., Ansorge, I.J. et al. A lifetime at depth: vertical distribution of southern elephant seals in the water column. Polar Biol 33, 1037–1048 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-010-0782-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-010-0782-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation